{"id":831,"date":"2025-10-12T22:53:41","date_gmt":"2025-10-12T19:23:41","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/?p=831"},"modified":"2025-10-13T17:39:42","modified_gmt":"2025-10-13T14:09:42","slug":"2-3","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/az\/2-3\/","title":{"rendered":"F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 N\u0259dir?"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h1 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><\/h1>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Thomas Metcalf<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u018fg\u0259r siz Tanr\u0131n\u0131n olub-olmamas\u0131, h\u0259yat\u0131n bir m\u0259qs\u0259dinin olub-olmamas\u0131, g\u00f6z\u0259lliyin tama\u015fa ed\u0259nin g\u00f6z\u00fcnd\u0259 olub-olmamas\u0131, h\u0259r\u0259k\u0259tl\u0259ri do\u011fru v\u0259 ya s\u0259hv ed\u0259n \u015feyin n\u0259 olmas\u0131, yaxud bir qanunun \u0259dal\u0259tli olub-olmamas\u0131 bar\u0259d\u0259 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fczs\u0259, dem\u0259li, f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 haqq\u0131nda d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcz. Bunlar is\u0259 yaln\u0131z bir ne\u00e7\u0259 f\u0259ls\u0259fi m\u00f6vzudur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B\u0259s <strong>f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 n\u0259dir?<\/strong> Bu sual\u0131n \u00f6z\u00fc f\u0259ls\u0259fi bir suald\u0131r. Bu m\u0259qal\u0259 b\u0259zi cavablar\u0131 ara\u015fd\u0131r\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin T\u0259rifi<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin \u0259n \u00fcmumi t\u0259rifi onun <strong>hikm\u0259t, h\u0259qiq\u0259t v\u0259 bilik axtar\u0131\u015f\u0131<\/strong> olmas\u0131d\u0131r. [1] H\u0259qiq\u0259t\u0259n d\u0259, s\u00f6z\u00fcn \u00f6z\u00fc yunan dilind\u0259 <strong>&#8220;hikm\u0259t sevgisi&#8221;<\/strong> dem\u0259kdir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u0130nsanlar kainat\u0131n v\u0259 \u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn t\u0259bi\u0259ti, insan biliyinin s\u0259rh\u0259dl\u0259ri, d\u0259y\u0259rl\u0259ri v\u0259 h\u0259yat\u0131n m\u0259nas\u0131 il\u0259 ba\u011fl\u0131 d\u0259rin, \u0259sasl\u0131 suallar haqq\u0131nda d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fckd\u0259, f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 haqq\u0131nda d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrl\u0259r. F\u0259ls\u0259fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnc\u0259 d\u00fcnyan\u0131n h\u0259r yerind\u0259, ke\u00e7mi\u015fd\u0259 v\u0259 indiki zamanda m\u00f6vcuddur. [2]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Akademik d\u00fcnyada f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 m\u00fc\u0259yy\u0259n bir t\u0259hsil sah\u0259sini elml\u0259r v\u0259 dig\u0259r humanitar sah\u0259l\u0259rd\u0259n f\u0259rql\u0259ndirir. Filosoflar ad\u0259t\u0259n, dig\u0259r t\u0259dqiqat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n suallar\u0131ndan bir q\u0259d\u0259r <strong>daha geni\u015f v\u0259\/v\u0259 ya daha fundamental<\/strong> olan suallar\u0131 n\u0259z\u0259rd\u0259n ke\u00e7irirl\u0259r: [3] M\u0259s\u0259l\u0259n, fizikl\u0259r bir hadis\u0259y\u0259 n\u0259yin s\u0259b\u0259b oldu\u011funu soru\u015fur; filosoflar is\u0259 s\u0259b\u0259biyy\u0259tin (causation) \u00fcmumiyy\u0259tl\u0259 m\u00f6vcud olub-olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 soru\u015furlar; tarix\u00e7il\u0259r \u0259dal\u0259t u\u011frunda m\u00fcbariz\u0259 aparan \u015f\u0259xsl\u0259ri \u00f6yr\u0259nirl\u0259r; filosoflar \u0259dal\u0259tin n\u0259 oldu\u011funu v\u0259 ya onlar\u0131n i\u015fl\u0259rinin h\u0259qiq\u0259t\u0259n \u0259dal\u0259tli olub-olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 soru\u015furlar; iqtisad\u00e7\u0131lar kapital\u0131n b\u00f6l\u00fc\u015fd\u00fcr\u00fclm\u0259sini \u00f6yr\u0259nirl\u0259r; filosoflar kapitalizmin etik d\u0259y\u0259rl\u0259rini m\u00fczakir\u0259 edirl\u0259r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Bir m\u00f6vzu ciddi, empirik t\u0259dqiqat \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcn \u0259lveri\u015fli olduqda, o, \u00f6z sah\u0259sin\u0259 &#8220;autsource&#8221; edilir v\u0259 art\u0131q &#8220;f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259&#8221; kimi t\u0259svir edilmir: M\u0259s\u0259l\u0259n, t\u0259bi\u0259t elml\u0259ri bir zamanlar <strong>&#8220;t\u0259bi\u0259t f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259si&#8221;<\/strong> adlan\u0131rd\u0131, lakin biz indi madd\u0259nin atomlardan ibar\u0259t olub-olmamas\u0131 bar\u0259d\u0259 yaln\u0131z <strong>d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fcr\u00fck<\/strong>: biz elmi t\u0259cr\u00fcb\u0259l\u0259rd\u0259n istifad\u0259 edirik. [4] V\u0259 bir \u00e7ox f\u0259rqli elmi d\u0259r\u0259c\u0259l\u0259r, h\u0259tta sosiologiya v\u0259 ya kimya sah\u0259sind\u0259 olsa bel\u0259, &#8220;F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 Doktoru&#8221; adlan\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">F\u0259ls\u0259fi suallar s\u0131rf empirik vasit\u0259l\u0259rl\u0259 birba\u015fa ara\u015fd\u0131r\u0131la bilm\u0259z: [5] M\u0259s\u0259l\u0259n, c\u0259miyy\u0259tl\u0259rin b\u0259rab\u0259rliy\u0259 yoxsa azadl\u0131\u011fa \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck verm\u0259li oldu\u011funu yoxlayan bir laboratoriya t\u0259cr\u00fcb\u0259sini t\u0259s\u0259vv\u00fcr etm\u0259y\u0259 \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131n \u2013 insanlar\u0131n buna inan\u0131b-inanmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yox, h\u0259qiq\u0259t\u0259n bel\u0259 olub-olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131. Mikroskop alt\u0131nda \u0259xlaqi \u0259h\u0259miyy\u0259t nec\u0259 g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Akademik f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin \u0259sas metodu <strong>arqumentl\u0259rin<\/strong> (y\u0259ni, m\u00fc\u0259yy\u0259n bir n\u0259tic\u0259ni \u0259sasland\u0131rmaq \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcn n\u0259z\u0259rd\u0259 tutulmu\u015f s\u0259b\u0259bl\u0259rin) qurulmas\u0131 v\u0259 qiym\u0259tl\u0259ndirilm\u0259sidir. Bu n\u0259tic\u0259l\u0259r h\u0259r hans\u0131 bir n\u0259z\u0259riyy\u0259nin do\u011fru v\u0259 ya yalan olmas\u0131, yaxud m\u00fc\u0259yy\u0259n bir anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n d\u00fczg\u00fcn <strong>t\u0259hlili<\/strong> v\u0259 ya <strong>t\u0259rifi<\/strong> haqq\u0131nda ola bil\u0259r. Bu arqumentl\u0259r \u00fcmumiyy\u0259tl\u0259 \u0259n az\u0131 b\u0259zi konseptual, intellektual v\u0259 ya <strong>a priori<\/strong> (y\u0259ni, qeyri-empirik) m\u0259zmuna malikdir. Filosoflar tez-tez m\u00fcvafiq elmi bilikl\u0259ri arqumentl\u0259rd\u0259 f\u0259rzl\u0259r kimi istifad\u0259 edirl\u0259r. [6]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin Sah\u0259l\u0259ri<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 \u0259sasl\u0131 suallarla m\u0259\u015f\u011ful olur. B\u0259s konkret olaraq hans\u0131 suallard\u0131r bunlar? Budur standart t\u0259snifat: [7]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>M\u0259ntiq (Logic):<\/strong> M\u0259ntiq\u00e7il\u0259r yax\u015f\u0131 v\u0259 pis arqumentl\u0259ri, h\u0259m\u00e7inin \u00f6n\u0259rm\u0259l\u0259ri, c\u00fcml\u0259l\u0259ri v\u0259 ya arqumentl\u0259ri ifad\u0259 etm\u0259k \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcn n\u0259z\u0259rd\u0259 tutulmu\u015f formal, simvolik dill\u0259ri \u00f6yr\u0259nirl\u0259r. [8]<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Metafizika (Metaphysics):<\/strong> Metafizika il\u0259 m\u0259\u015f\u011ful olanlar hans\u0131 varl\u0131q n\u00f6vl\u0259rinin m\u00f6vcud oldu\u011funu, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n v\u0259 onun t\u0259rkib hiss\u0259l\u0259rinin n\u0259d\u0259n yarand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 v\u0259 obyektl\u0259rin v\u0259 ya hadis\u0259l\u0259rin bir-birin\u0259 nec\u0259 s\u0259b\u0259b ola v\u0259 ya izah ed\u0259 bil\u0259c\u0259yini \u00f6yr\u0259nirl\u0259r. [9]<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Epistemologiya (Epistemology):<\/strong> Epistemoloqlar bilik, s\u00fcbut v\u0259 \u0259sasland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f inam\u0131 \u00f6yr\u0259nirl\u0259r. Epistemoloq duy\u011fular\u0131m\u0131za g\u00fcv\u0259n\u0259 bilib-bilm\u0259y\u0259c\u0259yimizi v\u0259 elmin etibarl\u0131 olub-olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ara\u015fd\u0131ra bil\u0259r. [10]<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>D\u0259y\u0259rl\u0259r (Values):<\/strong> D\u0259y\u0259r n\u0259z\u0259riyy\u0259sind\u0259 filosoflar, dig\u0259r m\u00f6vzularla yana\u015f\u0131, \u0259xlaq, siyas\u0259t v\u0259 s\u0259n\u0259ti \u00f6yr\u0259nirl\u0259r. M\u0259s\u0259l\u0259n: S\u0259hv h\u0259r\u0259k\u0259tl\u0259ri s\u0259hv ed\u0259n n\u0259dir? Yax\u015f\u0131 insanlar\u0131 v\u0259 yax\u015f\u0131 h\u0259yatlar\u0131 nec\u0259 m\u00fc\u0259yy\u0259nl\u0259\u015fdiririk? Bir c\u0259miyy\u0259ti \u0259dal\u0259tli v\u0259 ya \u0259dal\u0259tsiz ed\u0259n n\u0259dir? [11]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Bu sah\u0259l\u0259rd\u0259 \u00e7oxlu alt sah\u0259l\u0259r var. Bir \u00e7ox ba\u015fqa sah\u0259l\u0259rin \u2014 elml\u0259rin, inc\u0259s\u0259n\u0259tin, \u0259d\u0259biyyat\u0131n v\u0259 dinin \u2014 \u00f6zl\u0259rin\u0259 aid bir <strong>&#8220;f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259si&#8221;<\/strong> var: M\u0259s\u0259l\u0259n, elm filosoflar\u0131 kvant mexanikas\u0131n\u0131 \u015f\u0259rh etm\u0259y\u0259 k\u00f6m\u0259k ed\u0259 bil\u0259r; din filosoflar\u0131 tez-tez Tanr\u0131n\u0131n m\u00f6vcudlu\u011fu haqq\u0131nda arqumentl\u0259ri n\u0259z\u0259rd\u0259n ke\u00e7irirl\u0259r. [12]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">H\u0259m\u00e7inin, feminist f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 v\u0259 Afrika f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259si kimi m\u00fc\u0259yy\u0259n populyasiyalar v\u0259 ya icmalar haqq\u0131nda unikal v\u0259 vacib f\u0259ls\u0259fi m\u00fczakir\u0259l\u0259r m\u00f6vcuddur. [13] B\u00fct\u00fcn m\u0259d\u0259niyy\u0259tl\u0259rd\u0259n olan insanlar, Q\u0259rb f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259si kurslar\u0131nda ad\u0259t\u0259n m\u00fczakir\u0259 edil\u0259nl\u0259rd\u0259n daha \u00e7ox, f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259y\u0259 t\u00f6hf\u0259 verirl\u0259r. [14] Q\u0259rb akademik f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259si tez-tez qeyri-Q\u0259rb m\u0259d\u0259niyy\u0259tl\u0259rind\u0259n v\u0259 qad\u0131nlar\u0131n s\u0259sl\u0259rind\u0259n uzaq d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015fd\u00fcr. [15]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Filosoflar b\u0259z\u0259n dig\u0259r sah\u0259l\u0259rd\u0259n al\u0259tl\u0259r, bilikl\u0259r v\u0259 dil g\u0259tirirl\u0259r, m\u0259s\u0259l\u0259n, statistikadan epistemologiyada v\u0259 x\u00fcsusi nisbilik n\u0259z\u0259riyy\u0259sind\u0259n zaman f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259sind\u0259 istifad\u0259 edirl\u0259r. [16] Layih\u0259niz m\u00f6vcud olan h\u0259r \u015feyi [17] \u0259n geni\u015f v\u0259 \u0259n \u0259sas \u015f\u0259kild\u0259 anlamaqd\u0131rsa, ala bil\u0259c\u0259yiniz b\u00fct\u00fcn k\u00f6m\u0259y\u0259 ehtiyac\u0131n\u0131z var.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin M\u0259qs\u0259di(l\u0259ri)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Akademik f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 kimya v\u0259 fizikan\u0131n etdiyi kimi yekdil bilik k\u00fctl\u0259si t\u0259qdim etmir. [18] F\u0259ls\u0259fi suallar\u0131n d\u00fczg\u00fcn cavablar\u0131 varm\u0131? F\u0259ls\u0259fi t\u0259r\u0259qqi m\u00f6vcuddurmu? F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 zamanla h\u0259qiq\u0259t\u0259 yax\u0131nla\u015f\u0131rm\u0131? [19] B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar f\u0259ls\u0259fi m\u00fcbahis\u0259 m\u00f6vzusudur. [20] V\u0259 f\u0259ls\u0259fi m\u00fcbahis\u0259l\u0259r nadir hallarda tam \u0259minlikl\u0259 h\u0259ll olunur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B\u0259s m\u0259qs\u0259d n\u0259dir? Budur b\u0259zi cavablar: [21]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>H\u0259qiq\u0259ti, harada v\u0259 n\u0259 olursa olsun, k\u0259\u015ff etm\u0259k. [22]<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>H\u0259yat\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 daha yax\u015f\u0131 ya\u015fama\u011f\u0131 \u00f6yr\u0259nm\u0259k. [23]<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u00d6z bax\u0131\u015flar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131, o c\u00fcml\u0259d\u0259n onlar\u0131n g\u00fccl\u00fc v\u0259 z\u0259if t\u0259r\u0259fl\u0259rini anlamaq.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>\u00d6z h\u0259yat\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 ara\u015fd\u0131rmaq v\u0259 se\u00e7iml\u0259rimizin v\u0259 onlar\u0131n n\u0259tic\u0259l\u0259rinin daha \u00e7ox f\u0259rqind\u0259 olmaq.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Daha yax\u015f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u0259yi v\u0259 m\u00fchakim\u0259 etm\u0259yi \u00f6yr\u0259nm\u0259k. Xat\u0131rlay\u0131n: F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin \u0259sas metodu arqumentl\u0259ri t\u0259qdim etm\u0259k v\u0259 ara\u015fd\u0131rmaqd\u0131r. [24]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V\u0259 \u015f\u00fcbh\u0259siz ki, ham\u0131m\u0131z t\u0259bii olaraq \u0259n az\u0131 b\u0259zi f\u0259ls\u0259fi suallarla maraqlan\u0131r\u0131q. Bir \u00e7ox insan f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin \u00e7ox \u0259yl\u0259nc\u0259li oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr. V\u0259 cavablar m\u00f6vcuddursa, f\u0259ls\u0259fi suallar\u0131n cavablar\u0131n\u0131 tapma\u011f\u0131n \u00e7ox vacib oldu\u011funu m\u00fcbahis\u0259 etm\u0259k \u00e7\u0259tindir. M\u0259s\u0259l\u0259n, quldarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n s\u0259hv oldu\u011funu v\u0259 elmi konsensusun \u00fcmumiyy\u0259tl\u0259 etibarl\u0131 olub-olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bilm\u0259k vacibdir. Bel\u0259likl\u0259, bu suallar\u0131n cavablar\u0131n\u0131 tapmaq \u0259n az\u0131 <strong>m\u00fcmk\u00fcn<\/strong> oldu\u011fu m\u00fcdd\u0259tc\u0259 c\u0259hd etm\u0259liyik.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">H\u0259m\u00e7inin, f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 t\u0259hsili il\u0259 dig\u0259r akademik sah\u0259l\u0259rd\u0259 (m\u0259s\u0259l\u0259n, GRE n\u0259tic\u0259l\u0259ri v\u0259 pe\u015f\u0259kar m\u0259kt\u0259bl\u0259r\u0259 q\u0259bul) y\u00fcks\u0259k nailiyy\u0259tl\u0259r aras\u0131nda g\u00fccl\u00fc \u0259laq\u0259l\u0259r var. [25]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. N\u0259tic\u0259<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Biz f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259ni dig\u0259r sah\u0259l\u0259rl\u0259 m\u00fcqayis\u0259 etdik. F\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin sah\u0259l\u0259rin\u0259 n\u0259z\u0259r sald\u0131q. V\u0259 f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259nin m\u0259qs\u0259dl\u0259rini v\u0259 ya faydalar\u0131n\u0131 ara\u015fd\u0131rd\u0131q. B\u0259s f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 \u0259slind\u0259 n\u0259dir? \u0130ndiy\u0259 q\u0259d\u0259r dedikl\u0259rimizi n\u0259z\u0259r\u0259 alaraq, &#8220;f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259&#8221;nin \u0259n az\u0131 qism\u0259n t\u0259rifini a\u015fa\u011f\u0131dak\u0131 kimi ver\u0259 bil\u0259rik:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>D\u00fcnya haqq\u0131nda, o c\u00fcml\u0259d\u0259n d\u0259y\u0259rli v\u0259 d\u0259y\u0259rsiz olanlar haqq\u0131nda \u0259sasl\u0131 suallar\u0131 m\u00fc\u0259yy\u0259n etm\u0259y\u0259 v\u0259 cavabland\u0131rma\u011fa \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan, \u0259sas\u0259n (lakin tamamil\u0259 deyil) qeyri-empirik bir t\u0259dqiqatd\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Qaynaq:<strong> 1000-Word Philosophy<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Notes<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref1\"><sup>[1]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Berkeley 2003 [1710]: 5; Blackburn 1999: 1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref2\"><sup>[2]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Some of the oldest formal philosophy writing we have is attributed to a group of ancient Greek philosophers called the \u2018Pre-Socratics,\u2019 because they wrote before Socrates and Plato did (cf. Curd 2019). The earliest Upanishads may go back even further (Olivelle 1998: 4 ff.).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref3\"><sup>[3]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;This is similar to Encyclopaedia Britannica\u2019s (n.d.) definition: \u201cthe rational, abstract, and methodical consideration of reality as a whole or of fundamental dimensions of human existence and experience.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref4\"><sup>[4]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;See e.g., Berryman 2020 on ancient atomism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref5\"><sup>[5]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Metcalf 2018.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref6\"><sup>[6]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Most philosophers believe that the sciences provide knowledge relevant to traditional philosophical issues. That is, most philosophers endorse the meta-philosophy of \u2018naturalism,\u2019 according to which philosophy should be informed by the natural sciences. The usual justification for naturalism is based on the track-record of the natural sciences, including their tending toward consensus. See Bourget and Chalmers 2014: 476; Metcalf 2018; and Papineau 2019. For examples of the relevance of science to traditional philosophical issues, see Ingram and Tallent (2019: \u00a7 8); Wilce 2019; and Knobe and Nichols 2019. In these examples, special relativity may be relevant to philosophy of time; quantum mechanics may be relevant to philosophy of logic; and social science may be relevant to ethics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref7\"><sup>[7]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;This is a version of common anthologies\u2019 categorizations. See e.g., Blackburn 1999: vii and Rosen et al. 2015.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref8\"><sup>[8]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Logicians can also study logics about obligation (McNamara 2019), about necessity and possibility (Garson 2019), and whether useful logics can contain sentences that are both true and false simultaneously (Priest et al. 2019).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref9\"><sup>[9]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Van Inwagen and Sullivan 2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref10\"><sup>[10]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Steup 2019; Metcalf 2020.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref11\"><sup>[11]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Value theorists also study specific topics, such as our obligations to animals (Gruen 2019) and whether governments can be legitimate (Peter 2019). See also Haramia 2018 (the entry on applied ethics in&nbsp;<em>1000-Word Philosophy<\/em>) for an overview of applied ethics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref12\"><sup>[12]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Indeed, one area where people see many connections is with religion. So what\u2019s the difference between philosophy and religion? This is not an easy question to answer, but most religious practice proceeds from a shared starting-point consensus body of putative knowledge, and these beliefs are almost all about God or gods, the afterlife, and how to live a pious life. In contrast, in philosophy, everything is constantly open to question, and the topics are much broader than gods and the afterlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref13\"><sup>[13]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;See e.g., McAfee 2019 and Outlaw 2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref14\"><sup>[14]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Van Norden 2017.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref15\"><sup>[15]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;See e.g., Van Norden (op. cit.) and Buxton and Whiting 2020.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref16\"><sup>[16]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Indeed, one popular metaphilosophical view is methodological naturalism about philosophy, according to which philosophy should use the methods of the natural sciences. Some naturalists go so far as to say that traditional philosophical methods should be replaced by scientific methods. See Metcalf 2018 and Papineau 2019 for more discussion. As for tools and knowledge from other fields, statistical and probabilistic analysis is common in many areas of philosophy (see, e.g., Weisberg 2019) and special relativity may tell us something important about the philosophy of time (Ingram and Tallant 2019).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref17\"><sup>[17]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;And maybe even the objects that don\u2019t exist; see Reicher 2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref18\"><sup>[18]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Bourget and Chalmers 2014. Arguably, there is consensus about many philosophical questions, but we don\u2019t consider those questions in academic philosophy, at least not anymore. For example, almost everyone knows that slavery is wrong and that women should be allowed to vote if anyone is. See also Gutting 2009 for a general survey of some apparent philosophical discoveries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref19\"><sup>[19]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Cf. Chalmers 2015.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref20\"><sup>[20]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;See, e.g., Miller 2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref21\"><sup>[21]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;See Bierce 2008; de Montaigne 1987: 204; Russell 2010: 20 for some other statements about the nature or purpose of philosophy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref22\"><sup>[22]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Bierce 2008.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref23\"><sup>[23]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;De Montaigne 1987: 204.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref24\"><sup>[24]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;See e.g., Groarke 2019 and Prinzing and Vasquez 2025.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/1000wordphilosophy.com\/2020\/10\/10\/philosophy\/#_ftnref25\"><sup>[25]<\/sup><\/a>&nbsp;Daily Nous n.d. However, we do not yet know what proportion of this is a \u2018selection effect\u2019\u2014people who are&nbsp;<em>already&nbsp;<\/em>smart major in philosophy\u2014and how much of this is a \u2018treatment effect,\u2019 i.e., majoring in philosophy actually&nbsp;<em>makes&nbsp;<\/em>you smarter.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">References<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/store.doverpublications.com\/048643253x.html\">Berkeley, George. 2003 [1710].&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/store.doverpublications.com\/048643253x.html\"><em>A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/store.doverpublications.com\/048643253x.html\">. Mineola, NY: Dover Philosophical Classics.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/atomism-ancient\/\">Berryman, Sylvia. 2019. \u201cAncient Atomism.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2019 Edition.&nbsp;<\/a>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/972\/972-h\/972-h.htm\">Bierce, Ambrose. 2008. \u201cThe Devil\u2019s Dictionary.\u201d In Project Gutenberg (ed.), Project Gutenberg.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/global.oup.com\/ushe\/product\/think-9780192100245?cc=us&amp;lang=en&amp;\">Blackburn, Simon. 1999.&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/global.oup.com\/ushe\/product\/think-9780192100245?cc=us&amp;lang=en&amp;\"><em>Think: A Compelling Introduction to Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/global.oup.com\/ushe\/product\/think-9780192100245?cc=us&amp;lang=en&amp;\">. Oxford, UK and New York, NY: Oxford University Press.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11098-013-0259-7\">Bourget, David and David J. Chalmers. 2014. \u201cWhat Do Philosophers Believe?\u201d&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11098-013-0259-7\"><em>Philosophical Studies<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11098-013-0259-7\">&nbsp;170(3): 465-500.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/unbound.com\/books\/philosopher-queens\/\">Buxton, Rebecca and Lisa Whiting. 2020.&nbsp;<em>The Philosopher Queens: The Lives and Legacies of Philosophy\u2019s Unsung Women.<\/em>&nbsp;London, UK: Unbound Publishers.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"http:\/\/consc.net\/papers\/progress.pdf\">Chalmers, David J. 2015. \u201cWhy Isn\u2019t There More Progress in Philosophy?\u201d&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/consc.net\/papers\/progress.pdf\"><em>Philosophy&nbsp;<\/em><\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/consc.net\/papers\/progress.pdf\">90(1): 3-31.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/presocratics\/\">Curd, Patricia. 2019. \u201cPresocratic Philosophy.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/presocratics\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/presocratics\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"http:\/\/dailynous.com\/value-of-philosophy\/\">Daily Nous. n.d. \u201cValue of Philosophy.\u201d<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.penguin.co.uk\/books\/352\/35226\/the-complete-essays\/9780140446043.html\">De Montaigne, Michel. 1987.&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.penguin.co.uk\/books\/352\/35226\/the-complete-essays\/9780140446043.html\"><em>Complete Essays<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.penguin.co.uk\/books\/352\/35226\/the-complete-essays\/9780140446043.html\">. Tr. M. A. Screech. London, UK: Penguin Books.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/philosophy\">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. N.d. \u201cPhilosophy.\u201d In The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (eds.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/philosophy\"><em>Encyclopaedia Britannica<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/philosophy\">, Online Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-modal\/\">Garson, James. 2019. \u201cModal Logic.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-modal\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-modal\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-informal\/\">Groarke, Leo. 2019. \u201cInformal Logic.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/moral-animal\/\">Gruen, Lori. 2019. \u201cThe Moral Status of Animals.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/moral-animal\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/moral-animal\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/books\/what-philosophers-know\/8F1DF2B21CEB9FE76C3800289DC08CFB\">Gutting, Gary. 2009.&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/books\/what-philosophers-know\/8F1DF2B21CEB9FE76C3800289DC08CFB\"><em>What Philosophers Know: Case Studies in Recent Analytic Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/books\/what-philosophers-know\/8F1DF2B21CEB9FE76C3800289DC08CFB\">. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/presentism\/\">Ingram, David and Jonathan Tallant. 2019. \u201cPresentism.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/presentism\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/presentism\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/experimental-philosophy\/\">Knobe, Joshua and Shaun Nichols. 2019. \u201cExperimental Philosophy.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/time\/\">Markosian, Ned. 2019. \u201cTime.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/time\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/time\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/feminist-philosophy\/\">McAfee, No\u00eblle. 2019. \u201cFeminist Philosophy.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-deontic\/\">McNamara, Paul. 2019. \u201cDeontic Logic.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-deontic\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-deontic\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/realism\/\">Miller, Alexander. 2019. \u201cRealism.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/realism\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/realism\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/stream\/TheEarlyUpanisads\/The%20Early%20Upani%E1%B9%A3ads_djvu.txt\">Olivelle, Patrick (tr. and ed.). 1998.&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/stream\/TheEarlyUpanisads\/The%20Early%20Upani%E1%B9%A3ads_djvu.txt\"><em>The Early Upani\u1e63ads: Annotated Text and Translation<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/stream\/TheEarlyUpanisads\/The%20Early%20Upani%E1%B9%A3ads_djvu.txt\">. New York, NY and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/africana\/\">Outlaw, Lucius T. Jr. 2019. \u201cAfricana Philosophy.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/africana\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/africana\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/naturalism\/\">Papineau, David. 2019. \u201cNaturalism.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/naturalism\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/naturalism\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/legitimacy\/\">Peter, Fabienne. 2019. \u201cPolitical Legitimacy.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/legitimacy\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/legitimacy\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-paraconsistent\/\">Priest, Graham et al. 2019. \u201cParaconsistent Logic.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-paraconsistent\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/logic-paraconsistent\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/journals\/journal-of-the-american-philosophical-association\/article\/studying-philosophy-does-make-people-better-thinkers\/45A7DE8F37BE4698265BD54490109D4A\">Prinzing, Michael and Vasquez, Michael. 2025. \u201cStudying Philosophy: Does Make People Better Thinkers?\u201d&nbsp;<em>Journal of the American Philosophical Association<\/em>. 2025: 1-19.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/nonexistent-objects\/\">Reicher, Maria. 2019. \u201cNonexistent Objects.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/nonexistent-objects\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/nonexistent-objects\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/wwnorton.com\/books\/9780393624427\">Rosen, Gideon et al. 2015.&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/wwnorton.com\/books\/9780393624427\"><em>The Norton Introduction to Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/wwnorton.com\/books\/9780393624427\">, Second Edition. New York, NY and London, UK: W. W. Norton &amp; Company Ltd.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.routledge.com\/The-Philosophy-of-Logical-Atomism-1st-Edition\/Russell\/p\/book\/9780415474610\">Russell, Bertrand. 2010.&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.routledge.com\/The-Philosophy-of-Logical-Atomism-1st-Edition\/Russell\/p\/book\/9780415474610\"><em>The Philosophy of Logical Atomism<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.routledge.com\/The-Philosophy-of-Logical-Atomism-1st-Edition\/Russell\/p\/book\/9780415474610\">. Oxford, UK: Routledge Classics.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/beauty\/\">Sartwell, Crispin. 2019. \u201cBeauty.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/beauty\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/beauty\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/epistemology\/\">Steup, Matthias. 2019. \u201cEpistemology.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/epistemology\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/epistemology\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/metaphysics\/\">Van Inwagen, Peter and Meghan Sullivan. 2019. \u201cMetaphysics.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/metaphysics\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/metaphysics\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"http:\/\/cup.columbia.edu\/book\/taking-back-philosophy\/9780231184373\">Van Norden, Bryan W. 2017.&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/cup.columbia.edu\/book\/taking-back-philosophy\/9780231184373\"><em>Taking Back Philosophy: A Multicultural Manifesto<\/em><\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/cup.columbia.edu\/book\/taking-back-philosophy\/9780231184373\">. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/formal-epistemology\/\">Weisberg, Jonathan. 2019. \u201cFormal Epistemology.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/formal-epistemology\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/formal-epistemology\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/qt-quantlog\/\">Wilce, Alexander. 2019. \u201cQuantum Logic and Probability Theory.\u201d In E. N. Zalta (ed.),&nbsp;<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/qt-quantlog\/\"><em>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/win2019\/entries\/qt-quantlog\/\">, Winter 2019 Edition.<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Thomas Metcalf \u018fg\u0259r siz Tanr\u0131n\u0131n olub-olmamas\u0131, h\u0259yat\u0131n bir m\u0259qs\u0259dinin olub-olmamas\u0131, g\u00f6z\u0259lliyin tama\u015fa ed\u0259nin g\u00f6z\u00fcnd\u0259 olub-olmamas\u0131, h\u0259r\u0259k\u0259tl\u0259ri do\u011fru v\u0259 ya s\u0259hv ed\u0259n \u015feyin n\u0259 olmas\u0131, yaxud bir qanunun \u0259dal\u0259tli olub-olmamas\u0131 bar\u0259d\u0259 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fczs\u0259, dem\u0259li, f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 haqq\u0131nda d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcz. Bunlar is\u0259 yaln\u0131z bir ne\u00e7\u0259 f\u0259ls\u0259fi m\u00f6vzudur. B\u0259s f\u0259ls\u0259f\u0259 n\u0259dir? Bu sual\u0131n \u00f6z\u00fc f\u0259ls\u0259fi bir suald\u0131r. Bu m\u0259qal\u0259 b\u0259zi cavablar\u0131 [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":15,"featured_media":832,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_locale":"az","_original_post":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/?p=831","custom_author_name":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-831","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-1","az"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/831","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/15"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=831"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/831\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":842,"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/831\/revisions\/842"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/832"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=831"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=831"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/anlamtv.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=831"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}